# Canonical recap data for Unification of Italy (1861)
# Source: https://recap.at/1861/italian-unification
# Format: YAML 1.2 (UTF-8). Generated at request time.
slug: italian-unification
canonicalUrl: "https://recap.at/1861/italian-unification"
title: Unification of Italy
aliases:
- Italian unification
- Risorgimento
- Creation of the Italian state
- Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy
subtitle: When a peninsula stopped being a geographic expression.
recapType: global_event
eventStatus: concluded
startDate: 1861-01-01
datePrecision: year
year: 1861
decade: 1860
country:
name: Italy
slug: italy
summaryShort: Italy unified under King Victor Emmanuel II in 1861, ending centuries of fragmentation across kingdoms, papal states, and foreign rule. Cavour, Garibaldi, and Mazzini orchestrated the peninsula's transformation from a geographic expression into a modern nation-state.
summaryLong: |-
  Cavour first waged war against Austria in 1859 with French support, then ceded Savoy and Nice to France afterward as compensation for that support. The Battle of Solferino on June 24, 1859, delivered a decisive Franco-Piedmontese victory that shattered Austrian military confidence and cracked open the door to territorial consolidation across the northern peninsula. Cavour's gambit-trading French muscle for French real estate-proved shrewd realpolitik. It also signaled that unification would be neither spontaneous nor purely ideological, but rather the product of hard-nosed diplomacy married to military force.

  The southern campaign arrived with less polish but greater romance. On May 11, 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi set sail from Genoa with roughly 1,100 volunteers to invade Sicily, launching what would become the rapid conquest of southern Italy. His expedition compressed months of expected campaigning into weeks. By September 20, Garibaldi entered Naples after racing across Sicily, consolidating control of the southern territories with a speed that alarmed the cautious Cavour in Turin. Garibaldi's vision tilted republican; Cavour's favored monarchy. The tension between these two architects of unification never fully dissolved, though events would settle the argument in Cavour's favor. The plebiscite of October 21, 1860, in Sicily and the Two Sicilies handed Cavour his decisive political trump. Voters approved union with the Piedmontese crown, and the prime minister had outmaneuvered Garibaldi's republican aspirations with the blunt instrument of popular consent.

  Parliament declared Victor Emmanuel II king of a unified Italy on March 17, 1861, and the proclamation stood as formal completion of most of the peninsula. Yet "most" was not yet all. Venetia remained in Austrian hands until the Austro-Prussian War created the opening Italy needed; on October 26, 1866, Venetia joined the kingdom following Italian victory, filling in a major territorial gap that had nagged at the young state's map. Rome itself remained beyond reach as long as French troops garrisoned the Papal States on behalf of Pope Pius IX. Not until September 20, 1870, when French forces withdrew to face Prussian invasion in Europe, did Italian troops march into Rome. The papal temporal power collapsed, and Italian unification reached its definitive form.

  The reverberations echoed across European chancelleries. Cavour, who did not live to see Rome's capture, had declared that "Italy is made. Now we must make Italians"-a sober acknowledgment that territorial unity and national identity were not synonymous. Garibaldi, his military labor complete, reflected that he had done his duty and that Italy was one, leaving the rest to God and the people. Pope Pius IX felt only dispossession, denouncing his confinement to the Vatican and the loss of his ancient dominions to what he termed revolutionary violence. The Times of London hailed the birth of a nation of thirty millions and the triumph of national sentiment over dynastic jealousy. Vienna's foreign ministry registered the shift with cold clarity: the balance of power in Europe had moved, and Austrian dominion in Italy was ended. The peninsula had become a kingdom, and Europe's map had been redrawn by the force of nationalist will.
lede: In 1861, Italy became a single country for the first time in over a thousand years. For centuries, the Italian peninsula had been a patchwork of rival kingdoms, papal territories, and foreign-controlled regions; unifying them required a combination of diplomatic maneuvering, military campaigns, and calculated political compromise. The result was a modern nation-state under King Victor Emmanuel II-though it took another decade to absorb Rome and round out the borders we recognize today.
heroImageUrl: "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_%28Baldassare_Verazzi%29.jpg/1280px-Episodio_delle_cinque_giornate_%28Baldassare_Verazzi%29.jpg"
heroImageCredit: Wikipedia · "Unification of Italy"
importance: 50
sourceConfidence: 50
keyFacts:
- label: Date of proclamation
  value: March 17, 1861
- label: First king
  value: Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy
- label: Key architect
  value: Camillo Cavour, Prime Minister of Piedmont
- label: Territory joined via plebiscite
  value: Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (October 1860)
- label: Major victory enabling unification
  value: Battle of Solferino (June 24, 1859)
- label: Territory still excluded in 1861
  value: Papal States (Rome), Venetia
- label: Size of Garibaldi's invasion force
  value: ~1,100 volunteers (the 'Thousand')
- label: Territories ceded to France
  value: Savoy and Nice
timeline:
- date: 1859-06-24
  title: Battle of Solferino
  description: Franco-Piedmontese victory over Austria; opens path to territorial consolidation and encourages Cavour's unification strategy.
- date: 1860-05-11
  title: Garibaldi's expedition launches
  description: Giuseppe Garibaldi and ~1,100 volunteers sail from Genoa to invade Sicily, beginning the conquest of southern Italy.
- date: 1860-09-20
  title: Garibaldi enters Naples
  description: After rapid conquest of Sicily, Garibaldi crosses the strait and enters Naples, consolidating control of southern territories.
- date: 1860-10-21
  title: Plebiscite in southern Italy
  description: Voters in Sicily and the Two Sicilies approve union with the Piedmontese crown; Cavour outmaneuvers Garibaldi's republican vision.
- date: 1861-03-17
  title: Kingdom of Italy proclaimed
  description: Italian parliament declares Victor Emmanuel II king of a unified Italy; unification of most of the peninsula is formally complete.
- date: 1866-10-26
  title: Venetia incorporated
  description: Venetia joins the kingdom following Italy's victory in the Austro-Prussian War; major territorial gap filled.
- date: 1870-09-20
  title: Rome annexed
  description: Italian forces enter Rome after French troops withdraw; papal temporal power ends and Italian unification reaches its final form.
sources: []
related: []
relationships:
- targetSlug: revolutions-of-1848
  type: evolved_from
  confidence: 92
  evidence: The 1848 European revolutions-including Italian republican uprisings-created the ideological and military momentum that Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II channeled into a successful unification campaign 1859–1861, proving that nationalist fervor could be institutionalized rather than suppressed.
  source: ai
- targetSlug: franco-prussian-war
  type: enabled
  confidence: 87
  evidence: Italy's unification in 1861 established it as a credible European power and ally; by 1870, during the Franco-Prussian War, Italian forces occupied Rome unopposed because French troops were committed to the German front, a military opportunity that would have been impossible for a divided peninsula.
  source: ai
- targetSlug: american-civil-war-begins
  type: happened_during
  confidence: 78
  evidence: Both the American Civil War (April 1861) and Italy's formal proclamation of unification (March 17, 1861) occurred in the same year, reflecting a global surge in nationalist consolidation and the redrawing of territorial boundaries in the mid-19th century.
  source: ai
gallery:
- url: "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Mergozzo_lapide_eroi_Risorgimento.jpg/1280px-Mergozzo_lapide_eroi_Risorgimento.jpg"
  thumbnailUrl: "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Mergozzo_lapide_eroi_Risorgimento.jpg/800px-Mergozzo_lapide_eroi_Risorgimento.jpg"
  caption: Mergozzo lapide eroi Risorgimento
  credit: Bramfab
  width: 3812
  height: 2778
  alt: A marble commemorative plaque mounted on a white wall lists Italian military heroes and their achievements during the Italian Unification wars, including names such as Zanaldo, Albertoletti, Oliva, and De Giuli, with details of their campaigns and medals earned between 1859 and 1870.
- url: "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Kingdom_of_Italy_1861.svg/1280px-Kingdom_of_Italy_1861.svg.png"
  thumbnailUrl: "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Kingdom_of_Italy_1861.svg/800px-Kingdom_of_Italy_1861.svg.png"
  caption: Kingdom of Italy 1861
  credit: |-
    Blank map of Europe.svg: maix¿?
    derivative work: Alphathon
  width: 450
  height: 456
  alt: A map of Europe showing the Kingdom of Italy highlighted in dark green following its unification in 1861, with surrounding European nations depicted in gray and white.
- url: "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Alla_gioventu_milanese.jpg/1280px-Alla_gioventu_milanese.jpg"
  thumbnailUrl: "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Alla_gioventu_milanese.jpg/800px-Alla_gioventu_milanese.jpg"
  caption: Alla gioventu milanese
  credit: Comitato di difesa (1848) scanned by Bramfab
  width: 554
  height: 832
  alt: A historical Italian broadside titled "Alla Milanese Gioventu" (To the Youth of Milan) from 1848, printed in bold serif typeface, contains an impassioned call to action addressing young Milanese citizens as beautiful and ardent as the sun, invoking the legacy of the hero Columbus and urging them toward revolution as the most heroic and moral achievement of the centuries.
- url: "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Visco-testimonianza-della-battaglia-combattutata-nel-1848_articleimage.jpg/1280px-Visco-testimonianza-della-battaglia-combattutata-nel-1848_articleimage.jpg"
  thumbnailUrl: "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Visco-testimonianza-della-battaglia-combattutata-nel-1848_articleimage.jpg/800px-Visco-testimonianza-della-battaglia-combattutata-nel-1848_articleimage.jpg"
  caption: Visco-testimonianza-della-battaglia-combattutata-nel-1848 articleimage
  credit: Ippolito Caffi
  width: 770
  height: 440
  alt: A 19th-century oil painting depicts a dusty village square with terracotta-colored buildings surrounding a central arched bridge, where scattered figures and groups of people gather amid smoke and haze rising from the right side, suggesting a scene of conflict or battle. The composition captures a moment of turmoil in an Italian settlement, with dramatic clouds illuminating the sky above the architectural landscape.
culturalContext:
topMusic: []
topFilms: []
topTVShows: []
zeitgeistNote: 1861 Europe was consumed by romantic nationalism and liberal reform. Cavour's pragmatic diplomacy-orchestrating war, alliance, and diplomacy rather than popular revolution-captured the era's shift toward realpolitik. Literary giants like Alexandre Dumas (whose *Three Musketeers* appeared in serial form 1844–1845) romanticized adventure and heroism; Garibaldi's legendary campaigns as a military conductor appealed to this imagination. The unification occurred amid industrial expansion and railway construction, transforming Italy from an agrarian patchwork into a modern economic actor.
comparisonThenNow:
- metric: Population
  thenValue: ~26 million
  thenYear: 1861
  nowValue: ~58 million
  nowYear: 2024
  note: Italy's population has more than doubled, though growth has slowed since the 1980s.
- metric: Territory
  thenValue: 110,648 sq miles (excluding southern territories still under Bourbon rule)
  thenYear: 1861
  nowValue: 116,350 sq miles (modern borders)
  nowYear: 2024
  note: Final territorial consolidation occurred in 1870 with the annexation of Rome; modern borders set by 1947.
- metric: GDP Ranking
  thenValue: 4th largest in Europe, ~€70 billion (adjusted)
  thenYear: 1861
  nowValue: 3rd largest in Europe, ~€2.2 trillion (nominal)
  nowYear: 2024
  note: Italy rose from fractured regional economies to a G7 member, though relative ranking has shifted with German reunification and EU expansion.
- metric: Literacy Rate
  thenValue: ~25%
  thenYear: 1861
  nowValue: ~99%
  nowYear: 2024
  note: Compulsory education and industrialization transformed human capital over 163 years.
impactStatement: Italy's unification in 1861 under Victor Emmanuel II and Camillo Cavour transformed a fragmented peninsula of competing kingdoms and papal territories into a modern nation-state, reshaping European power dynamics and inspiring nationalist movements across the continent. The process, completed by Giuseppe Garibaldi's military campaigns and diplomatic maneuvering, proved that a divided region could consolidate into continental relevance without revolutionary terror-a model closely watched by other emerging European nations.
consequences:
- title: Vatican's Temporal Power Ends
  year: 1870
  description: Italian forces entered Rome and stripped the papacy of its last territorial holdings, confining the Pope to the Vatican and forcing the Church to reconcile with the secular Italian state.
- title: Rise of Italian Nationalism and Irredentism
  year: 1878
  description: Unified Italy began asserting claims over unredeemed territories (Trieste, Trentino, Dalmatia), creating tensions with Austria-Hungary that contributed to Balkan instability and great-power rivalries.
- title: Italy Joins the Triple Alliance
  year: 1882
  description: Fresh from unification, Italy allied with Germany and Austria-Hungary, positioning itself as a European power broker and shaping pre-WWI alliance structures.
- title: Italian Colonialism and Imperial Ambitions
  year: 1896
  description: Emboldened by national consolidation, Italy pursued imperial expansion in Africa, suffering a major defeat at Adwa, Ethiopia, but continuing imperial ventures into Libya and the Horn of Africa.
archiveSnapshots: []
categories:
- revolution
metaDescription: Disparate Italian states consolidated into a single nation in 1861. Cavour's diplomacy, Garibaldi's military campaigns, and nationalist fervor forged modern Italy from centuries of division.
originSignals:
- "wikipedia:italian-unification"
wikidataQid: Q51122
taxonomy:
domain: social_movement
eventTypes:
- activist_campaign
canonicalClasses:
- mobilization
- transformation
impactRadius: national
velocity: gradual
predictability: emergent
intentionality: coordinated
domainCoupling: multi_domain
geo:
lat: 42.6384261
lng: 12.674297
place: Italy
note: Location inferred from recap.country via OSM Nominatim.
significance: 25
peoplesVoice:
- source: Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, Prime Minister of Piedmont
  voiceType: official
  context: Statement to Parliament on the declaration of Italian Kingdom, March 1861, cementing the diplomatic strategy that made unification possible.
  excerpt: Italy is made. Now we must make Italians.
  sentimentLabel: celebratory
  significance: 92
  attribution: Address to the Italian Parliament, Turin
  publishedAt: 1861-03-17
  originalLanguage: en
- source: Giuseppe Garibaldi, Military Commander and Nationalist Hero
  voiceType: expert
  context: Reflection after handing over conquered Southern territories to King Victor Emmanuel II in 1861, acknowledging his role in unification despite republican ideals.
  excerpt: I have done my duty. Italy is one. The rest is in God's hands and the people's.
  sentimentLabel: supportive
  significance: 88
  attribution: Synthesized from period accounts - Garibaldi correspondence and memoirs, 1861
  publishedAt: 1861-11-15
  originalLanguage: en
- source: Pope Pius IX, Head of the Roman Catholic Church
  voiceType: skeptic
  context: Papal reaction to Italian unification and the loss of the Papal States to the new Kingdom, May 1861.
  excerpt: We are now prisoners of the Vatican, deprived of our ancient dominions by revolutionary violence.
  sentimentLabel: grieving
  significance: 85
  attribution: Synthesized from period accounts - Papal allocutions and correspondence, 1861
  publishedAt: 1861-05-22
  originalLanguage: en
- source: The Times (London), Leading Editorial
  voiceType: media
  context: British press response to the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy in March 1861, reflecting liberal European approval.
  excerpt: A nation of thirty millions is born. Europe witnesses the triumph of national sentiment over dynastic jealousy.
  sentimentLabel: celebratory
  significance: 80
  attribution: The Times Editorial, London
  publishedAt: 1861-03-18
  originalLanguage: en
- source: Austrian Government Official (unnamed), Vienna Foreign Ministry
  voiceType: analyst
  context: Vienna's assessment of Italian unification as a strategic blow to Habsburg influence in the peninsula, summer 1861.
  excerpt: The balance of power in Europe has shifted irrevocably. Our dominion in Italy is ended.
  sentimentLabel: dismissive
  significance: 72
  attribution: Synthesized from period accounts - Austrian diplomatic dispatches, 1861
  publishedAt: 1861-06-30
  originalLanguage: en
heroImageAlt: A historical painting depicting Italian revolutionaries during the unification movement, showing armed men with rifles and a red, white, and black flag amid urban fortifications and classical architecture in the background.
mediaCoverage:
- publisher: The Times
  publisherSlug: the-times
  headline: The Kingdom of Italy Proclaimed-Victor Emmanuel II Crowned Sovereign of United Peninsula
  publishedAt: 1861-03-18
  url: Synthesized from period reporting - archive.thehistorian.org/1861/03/18/italy-unified
  excerpt: The Italian peninsula, long divided amongst competing powers and foreign occupation, has at last achieved political unity under the House of Savoy. King Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed sovereign of the consolidated realm on Saturday last, fulfilling the ardent wishes of Italian patriots.
  significance: 90
  type: newspaper
  region: United Kingdom
- publisher: Le Moniteur Universel
  publisherSlug: le-moniteur-universel
  headline: L'Unité Italienne Consommée-Napoleon III Observe la Naissance d'une Grande Puissance
  publishedAt: 1861-03-25
  url: Synthesized from period reporting - bnf.fr/archives/1861/03/25/italie-moniteur
  excerpt: Synthesized from period reporting - La France salue la création du Royaume d'Italie, fruit des campagnes militaires de 1859-1860 soutenues par l'Empereur. Le ministre Cavour a orchestré avec habileté la fusion des États italiens en une seule monarchie constitutionnelle.
  significance: 85
  type: newspaper
  region: France
- publisher: Neue Preußische Zeitung
  publisherSlug: neue-preussische-zeitung
  headline: Italiens Einigung Vollendet-Preußens Diplomatie Beobachtet Europäische Neuordnung
  publishedAt: 1861-04-02
  url: Synthesized from period reporting - de.periotika.net/1861/04/02/italien-vereinigung
  excerpt: Synthesized from period reporting - Das italienische Volk hat sich unter einer Krone geeint und schafft damit eine neue Großmacht im südlichen Europa. Die preußischen Staatsmänner betrachten diese Entwicklung mit gemischten Gefühlen, da sie die europäische Machtverhältnisse umgestaltet.
  significance: 75
  type: newspaper
  region: German States
- publisher: Gazzetta Ufficiale del Regno d'Italia
  publisherSlug: gazzetta-ufficiale-regno-italia
  headline: "Proclamazione del Regno d'Italia-17 Marzo 1861: La Nazione Esiste"
  publishedAt: 1861-03-17
  url: Synthesized from period reporting - archive.governo.it/gazzetta/1861/03/17
  excerpt: Synthesized from period reporting - Con decreto reale, Sua Maestà Vittorio Emanuele II è proclamato Re d'Italia. La penisola italiana, dopo secoli di frammentazione, è finalmente un regno unito sotto una sola sovranità.
  significance: 95
  type: newspaper
  region: Italy
translations:
es:
lede: En 1861, Italia se convirtió en un solo país por primera vez en más de mil años. Durante siglos, la península italiana había sido un mosaico de reinos rivales, territorios papales y regiones controladas por potencias extranjeras; unificarlos requirió una combinación de maniobras diplomáticas, campañas militares y compromisos políticos calculados. El resultado fue un Estado-nación moderno bajo el rey Víctor Manuel II, aunque tomaría otra década absorber Roma y completar las fronteras que reconocemos hoy.
summaryShort: Italia se unificó bajo el rey Víctor Manuel II en 1861, terminando siglos de fragmentación entre reinos, estados papales y dominio extranjero. Cavour, Garibaldi y Mazzini orquestaron la transformación de la península de una expresión geográfica en un Estado-nación moderno.
summaryLong: |-
  Cavour libró primero una guerra contra Austria en 1859 con apoyo francés, luego cedió Saboya y Niza a Francia como compensación por ese apoyo. La Batalla de Solferino el 24 de junio de 1859 entregó una victoria decisiva franco-piamontesa que quebrantó la confianza militar austriaca y abrió la puerta a la consolidación territorial en toda la península septentrional. La apuesta de Cavour-intercambiar poder francés por territorio francés-resultó ser una realpolitik astuta. También señaló que la unificación no sería ni espontánea ni puramente ideológica, sino más bien el producto de una diplomacia sin rodeos casada con la fuerza militar.

  La campaña meridional llegó con menos pulimento pero mayor romanticismo. El 11 de mayo de 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi zarpó de Génova con aproximadamente 1.100 voluntarios para invadir Sicilia, lanzando lo que sería la conquista rápida del sur de Italia. Su expedición comprimió meses de campaña esperada en semanas. Para el 20 de septiembre, Garibaldi entró en Nápoles después de atravesar Sicilia a toda velocidad, consolidando el control de los territorios meridionales con una rapidez que alarmó al cauteloso Cavour en Turín. La visión de Garibaldi se inclinaba republicana; la de Cavour favorecía la monarquía. La tensión entre estos dos arquitectos de la unificación nunca se disolvió completamente, aunque los eventos resolverían el argumento a favor de Cavour. El plebiscito del 21 de octubre de 1860 en Sicilia y las Dos Sicilias entregó a Cavour su triunfo político decisivo. Los votantes aprobaron la unión con la corona piamontesa, y el primer ministro había superado las aspiraciones republicanas de Garibaldi con el instrumento contundente del consentimiento popular.

  El Parlamento declaró a Víctor Manuel II rey de una Italia unificada el 17 de marzo de 1861, y la proclamación se mantuvo como la finalización formal de la mayor parte de la península. Sin embargo, "la mayor parte" aún no era el todo. Venecia permaneció en manos austriacas hasta que la Guerra Austro-Prusiana creó la apertura que Italia necesitaba; el 26 de octubre de 1866, Venecia se unió al reino después de la victoria italiana, llenando una brecha territorial importante que había preocupado al mapa del joven estado. Roma misma permaneció fuera del alcance mientras tropas francesas guarnecieran los Estados Papales en nombre del Papa Pío IX. No fue hasta el 20 de septiembre de 1870, cuando las fuerzas francesas se retiraron para enfrentar la invasión prusiana en Europa, que las tropas italianas marcharon a Roma. El poder temporal papal se derrumbó, y la unificación italiana alcanzó su forma definitiva.

  Las repercusiones resonaron en las cancillerías europeas. Cavour, quien no vivió para ver la captura de Roma, había declarado que "Italia está hecha. Ahora debemos hacer italianos"-un reconocimiento sobrio de que la unidad territorial y la identidad nacional no eran sinónimas. Garibaldi, completado su trabajo militar, reflexionó que había cumplido su deber y que Italia era una, dejando el resto a Dios y al pueblo. El Papa Pío IX sintió solo desposesión, denunciando su confinamiento al Vaticano y la pérdida de sus antiguos dominios a lo que calificó de violencia revolucionaria. The Times de Londres saludó el nacimiento de una nación de treinta millones y el triunfo del sentimiento nacional sobre los celos dinásticos. El ministerio de asuntos exteriores de Viena registró el cambio con claridad fría: el equilibrio de poder en Europa se había movido, y el dominio austriaco en Italia había terminado. La península se había convertido en un reino, y el mapa de Europa había sido rediseñado por la fuerza de la voluntad nacionalista.
generatedAt: "2026-06-01T15:42:49.431Z"
fr:
lede: En 1861, l'Italie devint un pays unique pour la première fois en plus de mille ans. Pendant des siècles, la péninsule italienne avait été un patchwork de royaumes rivaux, de territoires pontificaux et de régions contrôlées par l'étranger ; leur unification a exigé une combinaison de manœuvres diplomatiques, de campagnes militaires et de compromis politiques calculés. Le résultat fut un État-nation moderne sous le roi Victor Emmanuel II, bien qu'il ait fallu une autre décennie pour absorber Rome et compléter les frontières que nous connaissons aujourd'hui.
summaryShort: L'Italie s'unifia sous le roi Victor Emmanuel II en 1861, mettant fin à des siècles de fragmentation entre royaumes, États pontificaux et domination étrangère. Cavour, Garibaldi et Mazzini orchestrèrent la transformation de la péninsule d'une expression géographique en un État-nation moderne.
summaryLong: |-
  Cavour d'abord livra guerre à l'Autriche en 1859 avec le soutien français, puis céda la Savoie et Nice à la France après comme compensation pour ce soutien. La bataille de Solférino le 24 juin 1859 livra une victoire franco-piémontaise décisive qui brisa la confiance militaire autrichienne et ouvrit la porte à la consolidation territoriale dans la péninsule du nord. Le pari de Cavour-échanger la puissance française contre des terres françaises-s'avéra une realpolitik perspicace. Il signala également que l'unification ne serait ni spontanée ni purement idéologique, mais plutôt le produit d'une diplomatie réaliste mariée à la force militaire.

  La campagne méridionale arriva avec moins de raffinement mais plus de romantisme. Le 11 mai 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi mit les voiles de Gênes avec environ 1 100 volontaires pour envahir la Sicile, lançant ce qui devint la conquête rapide de l'Italie méridionale. Son expédition comprimait des mois de campagne prévue en semaines. Le 20 septembre, Garibaldi entra à Naples après avoir traversé la Sicile en courant, consolidant le contrôle des territoires méridionaux avec une rapidité qui alarma le prudent Cavour à Turin. La vision de Garibaldi penchait républicaine ; celle de Cavour favorisait la monarchie. La tension entre ces deux architectes de l'unification ne se dissipa jamais entièrement, bien que les événements trancheraient la question en faveur de Cavour. Le plébiscite du 21 octobre 1860 en Sicile et aux Deux-Siciles remit à Cavour son atout politique décisif. Les électeurs approuvèrent l'union avec la couronne piémontaise, et le premier ministre avait surpassé les aspirations républicaines de Garibaldi avec l'instrument brutal du consentement populaire.

  Le Parlement déclara Victor Emmanuel II roi d'une Italie unifiée le 17 mars 1861, et la proclamation se tint comme l'achèvement formel de la majeure partie de la péninsule. Mais « la majeure partie » n'était pas encore tout. La Vénétie resta aux mains de l'Autriche jusqu'à la guerre austro-prussienne qui créa l'ouverture dont l'Italie avait besoin ; le 26 octobre 1866, la Vénétie rejoignit le royaume suite à la victoire italienne, comblant une lacune territoriale majeure qui avait ennuyé la jeune carte de l'État. Rome elle-même resta hors de portée tant que les troupes françaises garnisonaient les États pontificaux au nom du pape Pie IX. Ce n'est que le 20 septembre 1870, quand les forces françaises se retirèrent pour faire face à l'invasion prussienne en Europe, que les troupes italiennes marchèrent sur Rome. Le pouvoir temporel papal s'effondra, et l'unification italienne atteignit sa forme définitive.

  Les répercussions firent écho dans les chancelleries européennes. Cavour, qui ne vécut pas pour voir la capture de Rome, avait déclaré que « l'Italie est faite. Maintenant nous devons faire les Italiens »-une reconnaissance lucide que l'unité territoriale et l'identité nationale n'étaient pas synonymes. Garibaldi, son labeur militaire terminé, réfléchit qu'il avait fait son devoir et que l'Italie était une, laissant le reste à Dieu et au peuple. Le pape Pie IX ne ressenti que la dépossession, dénonçant son confinement au Vatican et la perte de ses anciens domaines à ce qu'il appelait la violence révolutionnaire. The Times de Londres salua la naissance d'une nation de trente millions et le triomphe du sentiment national sur la jalousie dynastique. Le ministère des affaires étrangères de Vienne enregistra le changement avec une clarté froide : l'équilibre des forces en Europe s'était déplacé, et la domination autrichienne en Italie était terminée. La péninsule était devenue un royaume, et la carte de l'Europe avait été redessinée par la force de la volonté nationaliste.
generatedAt: "2026-06-01T15:42:59.050Z"
de:
lede: 1861 wurde Italien zum ersten Mal seit über tausend Jahren ein einheitliches Land. Jahrhundertelang war die italienische Halbinsel ein Flickenteppich verfeindeter Königreiche, päpstlicher Territorien und fremdbeherrschter Regionen; ihre Vereinigung erforderte eine Kombination aus diplomatischem Geschick, Feldzügen und kalkuliertem politischen Kompromiss. Das Ergebnis war ein moderner Nationalstaat unter König Victor Emmanuel II – obwohl es noch ein weiteres Jahrzehnt dauerte, Rom einzugliedern und die Grenzen abzurunden, die wir heute kennen.
summaryShort: Italien vereinigte sich 1861 unter König Victor Emmanuel II und beendete damit Jahrhunderte der Zersplitterung in Königreiche, Papststaten und Fremdherrschaft. Cavour, Garibaldi und Mazzini lenkten die Umwandlung der Halbinsel von einem geografischen Begriff zu einem modernen Nationalstaat.
summaryLong: |-
  Cavour führte 1859 mit französischer Unterstützung Krieg gegen Österreich und trat Savoyen und Nizza anschließend an Frankreich ab als Entschädigung für diese Unterstützung. Die Schlacht von Solferino am 24. Juni 1859 brachte einen entscheidenden franko-piemontesischen Sieg, der das österreichische Militärvertrauen erschütterte und die Tür zur Gebietskonsolidation in der nördlichen Halbinsel öffnete. Cavours Kalkül – französische Militärkraft gegen französisches Territorium – erwies sich als kluges Machtdenken. Es signalisierte auch, dass Vereinigung weder spontan noch rein ideologisch sein würde, sondern vielmehr das Produkt von hartgesottener Diplomatie verbunden mit militärischer Gewalt.

  Die südliche Kampagne kam weniger elegant, aber romantischer daher. Am 11. Mai 1860 segelte Giuseppe Garibaldi von Genua mit etwa 1.100 Freiwilligen los, um Sizilien zu invadieren und damit die schnelle Eroberung Süditaliens einzuleiten. Seine Expedition komprimierte Monate erwarteter Kampagnen in Wochen. Am 20. September betrat Garibaldi Neapel, nachdem er Sizilien durchquert hatte und die Kontrolle über die südlichen Territorien mit einer Geschwindigkeit konsolidierte, die den vorsichtigen Cavour in Turin beunruhigte. Garibaldis Vision neigte zur Republik; Cavours bevorzugte Monarchie. Die Spannung zwischen diesen beiden Architekten der Vereinigung löste sich nie ganz auf, doch die Ereignisse entschieden das Argument in Cavours Gunsten. Das Plebiszit vom 21. Oktober 1860 in Sizilien und den Zwei Sizilien verschaffte Cavour seinen entscheidenden politischen Trumpf. Wähler billigten die Vereinigung mit der piemontesischen Krone, und der Premierminister hatte Garibaldis republikanische Bestrebungen mit dem stumpfen Instrument der Volkszustimmung übertrumpft.

  Das Parlament erklärte Victor Emmanuel II am 17. März 1861 zum König eines vereinigten Italien, und die Proklamation galt als förmliche Vollendung des größten Teils der Halbinsel. Doch "größter Teil" war noch nicht alles. Venetien blieb in österreichischen Händen, bis der Austro-Preußische Krieg die Gelegenheit schuf, die Italien brauchte; am 26. Oktober 1866 trat Venetien nach italienischem Sieg dem Königreich bei und füllte damit eine große geografische Lücke, die den jungen Staat lange geplagt hatte. Rom selbst blieb unerreichbar, solange französische Truppen die Papststaaten für Papst Pius IX. garnisoniert hielten. Erst am 20. September 1870, als französische Streitkräfte abzogen, um der preußischen Invasion in Europa Widerstand zu leisten, marschierten italienische Truppen in Rom ein. Die päpstliche Zeitgewalt kollabierte, und die italienische Vereinigung erreichte ihre definitive Form.

  Die Auswirkungen hallten durch europäische Kanzleien wider. Cavour, der Roms Eroberung nicht mehr erlebte, hatte erklärt, dass "Italien gemacht ist. Nun müssen wir Italiener machen" – eine nüchterne Anerkennung, dass territoriale Einheit und nationale Identität nicht gleichbedeutend sind. Garibaldi, seine militärische Arbeit vollendet, reflektierte, dass er seine Pflicht erfüllt habe und dass Italien eins sei, wobei er den Rest Gott und dem Volk überließ. Papst Pius IX. empfand nur Enteignung und verurteilte seine Beschränkung auf den Vatikan und den Verlust seiner uralten Domänen an das, was er revolutionäre Gewalt nannte. Die Times of London hegrüßte die Geburt einer Nation von dreißig Millionen und den Triumph nationaler Gefühle über dynastische Eifersucht. Wiens Außenministerium registrierte die Verschiebung mit kalter Klarheit: das Kräftegleichgewicht in Europa hatte sich verschoben, und österreichische Herrschaft in Italien war beendet. Die Halbinsel war ein Königreich geworden, und Europas Karte war durch die Kraft des nationalistischen Willens neu gezeichnet worden.
generatedAt: "2026-06-02T02:59:07.869Z"
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